Since more than 50 years there has been increasing interest in improving symbols or pictograms on a scientific basis. Below we present a selection of papers, reports and books related to tests and design of graphic symbols as well as related subjects (e.g. safety labelling, warnings).
The current selection is far from complete, but we are adding papers day by day and more will follow...
Go to A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z
Abdullah, R., & Hübner, R. (2006)
Pictograms, icons & signs: A guide to information graphics. London: Thames & Hudson.
Adams, A.S. (1999)
Usability testing in information design. In Zwaga, H.J.G., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H.C.M. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. Design and research perspectives. London, Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
Adams, A., Bochner, S., & Bilik, L. (1998)
The effectiveness of warning signs in hazardous work places: cognitive and social determinants. Applied ergonomics, 29(4), 247–254.
Adams, A., Bright, J. & Searle, B. (1998)
Signs of trouble to come? A behavioural assessment of the effectiveness of road warning signs. University of New South Wales/Federal Office of Road Safety.
Adams, A.S. & Montague, M. (1994)
Testing warning signs: Conspicuity and discrimination. Information Design Journal, 7(3), 203–210.
Aicher, O. & Krampen, M. (1977)
Zeichensysteme der visuellen Kommunikation: Handbuch für Designer, Architekten, Planer, Organisatoren. Stuttgart: Verlagsanstalt Alexander Koch.
AIGA (1993)
Symbol Signs. NewYork: The American Institute of Graphic Arts.
Akerboom, S.P., Mijksenaar, P. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1997)
'Keep this (plastic) cover away from small children to avoid suffocation': Development of a comprehensible warning symbol. Leiden, The Netherlands: Centre for Safety Research.
Al-Rousan, T.M. & Umar, A.A. (2021)
Assessment of Traffic Sign Comprehension Levels among Drivers in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, UAE. Infrastructures 2021, 6, 122. https://doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures6090122
Allen, R.W., Parseghian, Z., & van Valkenburgh, P.G. (1980)
Age Effects on Symbol Sign Recognition. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration (FHWA-RD-80-126).
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Accident Prevention Tags. ANSI Z535.5, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1978)
American National Standard Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and Highways. ANSI D6. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1972)
American National Standard Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs. ANSI Z535.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Criteria for Safety Symbols. ANSI Z535.3, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Environmental and Facility Safety Signs, ANSI Z535.2, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1988)
Hazardous Industrial Chemicals– Precautionary Labeling. ANSI Z129.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Product Safety Signs and Labels, ANSI Z535.4, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1987)
Safety Color Code, ANSI Z535.1, draft. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
American National Standards Institute (1993)
American National Standard for Hazardous Industrial Chemicals – Material Safety Data Sheets – Preparation: Z400.1-1993. New York: American National Standards Institute. (June 3).
American National Standards Institute (1994)
American National Standard for Hazardous Industrial Chemicals – Precautionary Labeling: Z129.1. New York: National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
An, D. & Chan, E.H.W. (2017)
Investigating the Comprehension of Public Symbols for Wayfinding in Transit Hubs in China. In: Rau, PL. (eds) Cross-Cultural Design. CCD 2017. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 10281. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57931-3_24
Anderson, N.S. & Leonard, J.A. (1958)
The Recognition, Naming and Reconstruction of Visual Figures as a Function of Contour Redundancy. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1958, 56, 262-270.
Ayres, T.J., Gross, M.M., Wood, C.T., Horst, D. P., Beyer, R. R. & Robinson, J.N. (Failure Analysis Associates, Inc.) (1994)
What is a Warning and When will it Work?, Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Ayres, T.J., Gross, M.M., Horst, D.P. & Robinson N. (1992)
A Methodological Taxonomy for Warning Research, Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 36th Annual Meeting 499-503.
Babbitt Kline, T.J., Ghali, L.M., Kline, D.W. & Brown S. (1990)
Visibility distance of highway signs among young, middle-aged, and older observers: icons are better than text. Human Factors. 32 (5), 609‐619.
Baber, C., & Wankling, J. (1992)
An experimental comparison of text and symbols for in-car reconfigurable displays. Applied Ergonomics, 23(4), 255-262.
Barbara, C. & Gill, R. (1987)
Human Factors and Warning Label Design, Interface 87 91-94.
Barnard, P. & Marcel, T. (1984)
Representation and Understanding in the Use of Symbols and Pictograms. In: Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.): Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd, pp. 37-75.
Barros, I. M., Alcântara, T. S., Mesquita, A. R., Santos, A. C., Paixão, F. P., & Lyra, D. P., Jr (2014).
The use of pictograms in the health care: a literature review. Research in social & administrative pharmacy : RSAP, 10(5), 704–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2013.11.002
Barros, I.M., Alcântara, T.S., Mesquita, A.R., Bispo, M., Rocha, C., Moreira, V. & Lyra, D. P., Jr (2014).
Understanding of pictograms from the United States Pharmacopeia Dispensing Information (USP-DI) among elderly Brazilians. Patient preference and adherence. 8. 1493-501. 10.2147/PPA.S65301.
Bekiaris, E., Wiethoff, M., & Gaitanidou, E. (Eds.) (2011)
Infrastructure and Safety in a Collaborative World: Road Traffic Safety. Springer Science & Business Media.
Berger, C.M. (Ed.) (2005)
Wayfinding: Designing and Implementing Graphic Navigational Systems. Mies, Switzerland: RotoVision.
Bettman, J., Payne, J. & Staelin, R. (1986)
Cognitive Considerations in Designing Effective Labels of Presenting Risk Information, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 5:1-28. Cited in Andrews, Netemeyer and Durvasula 1991.
Boersema, T. (2000)
Visual conspicuity in complex, naturalistic images. Dissertation, Delft University of Technology.
Boersema, T. (2003)
Graphical symbols for use on banknotes: comprehensibility judgment test. Delft: Delft University of Technology Industrial Design.
Boersema, T. (2006)
Comprehensibility of graphical symbols for clarifying security features.
In D. de Waard, KA. Brookhuis, & A. Toffetti (Eds.), Developments in human factors in transportation, design and evaluation (pp. 333-344). Maastricht: Shaker Publishing.
Boersema, T. & Adams, A.S. (2017)
Does my symbol sign work? International standards for designing and testing graphical symbols.
In: Black, A., Luna, P., Lund, O. & Walker, S. (Eds.) Information design: research and practice. Abingdon: Routledge - Taylor & Francis Group, p. 303-314.
Boersema, T. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1985)
The Influence of Advertisements on the Conspicuity of Routing Information. Applied Ergonomics, 1985, 16/4, 267-273.
Boersema, T., Zwaga, H.J.G. & Adams, A.S. (1989)
Conspicuity in realistic scenes: an eye-movement measure. Applied Ergonomics 20.
Boersema, T. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1989)
Selecting comprehensible warning symbols for swimming pool slides. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting, pp. 994-998. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
Bogett, W.R. & Rodriguez, L. (1987)
On the Influence of a Perception of Danger on the Effectiveness of Warnings for Product Users. Hazard Prevention 23(4):19-24.
Bolek, J. & Cowgill, J. (2005)
Development of a symbol system for use in the health care industry. Proceedings of the 2005 Conference on Designing for User eXperience, November 2005.
Brainard, R.W., Campbell, R.J. & Elkin, E.H. (1961)
Design and Interpretability of Road Signs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1961, 45, 130-136.
Bräuer, E. (1977)
Die Wirkung verschiedener Darstellungen von Verbotspiktogrammen. Dissertation, Psychology Department, University of Vienna.
Braun, C.C., Kennedy, R. S. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
Signal Word and Color Specifications for Product Warnings: An Isoperformance Application. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Meeting:1104-1108.
Braun, C.C. & Silver, N.C. (1995)
Interaction of Signal Word and Colour on warning Labels: Differences in Perceived Hazard and Behavioural Compliance. Ergonomics 38(11):2207-20.
Braun, C.C. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
Differences in Behavior Compliance as a Function of Warning Color. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:379-383.
Braun, C.C., Sansing, L. & Silver, N.C. (1994)
The Interaction of Signal Word and Color on Warning Labels: Differences in Perceived Hazard. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:831-835.
Braun, C.C., Silver, N.C. & Stock, B.R. (1992)
Likelihood of Reading Warnings: The Effect of Fonts and Font Sizes. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 36th Annual Meeting:926-930.
Brelsford, J.W., Wogalter, M.S. & Scoggins, J.A. (1994)
Enhancing Comprehension and Retention of Safety-Related Pictorials. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting:836-840.
Bresnahan, T.F. & Bryk, J. (1975)
The Hazard Association Values of Accident-Prevention Signs", Professional Safety (January):17-25.
Brigham, F.R. (1998)
International Standardisation of Graphical Symbols for Consumer Products. In: John Smith (Ed.), Contemporary Ergonomics. London: Taylor and Francis, pp. 8-12.
Brigham, F.R. (2000/2001)
Graphical Symbols for Consumer Products in an International Context.
Information Design Journal, 10(2), pp. 115-123.
Brimmell, C. (1987)
Study Reveals that Many Safety Symbols Warning of Hazards are Not Understood. Consensus (14)1:5-6.
Broadbent, D.E. (1977)
Language and Ergonomics. Applied Ergonomics 8(1):15-18.
Browne, Stammers (1987)
The evaluation and generation of icons for a computer drawing package.
Contemporary Ergonomics, 251-256.
Brugger, Ch. (1987)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols, ISO 1986 Test Series: Comprehension/Recognition Test. Vienna: ISO/TC 145/SC 1.
Brugger, Ch. (1990)
Advances in the International Standardization of Public Information Symbols. Information Design Journal, 1990, 6/1, 79-88.
Brugger, Ch. (1999)
Public information symbols: a comparison of ISO testing procedures. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Brugger, Ch. (2000)
Safety Signs - Problems of Current European Legislation. IDNews 12, April 2000.
Brugger, Ch. (2000)
Verständlichkeitstest ON 2000. Report to the Austrian Standards Institute, Vienna, November 2000.
Brugger, Ch. (2001)
Recent Activities Concerning the Standardization of Public Information Symbols and Safety Signs. IDNews 20, July 2001.
Brugger, Ch. (2001)
Elevator - Comments on Various Concepts. IDNews 20, July 2001.
Brugger Ch. (2005)
Verständlichkeit von Grafischen Symbolen und Piktogrammen. In: Scholz M., Helmbold U. (Eds.): Bilder lesen lernen. Bildwissenschaft, vol 16. Deutscher Universitätsverlag, Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-663-09413-5_2
Brugger Ch. (2006)
Comprehensibility Judgment Test. Report In-Safety, Contract No 506716.
Brugger, Ch. & Simlinger, P. (1984)
Zur Entwicklung normfähiger graphischer Symbole für die Öffentlichkeitsinformation. Semiotische Berichte, 1984, 8/1, 23-39.
Cahill, M.C. (1975)
Interpretability of Graphic Symbols as a Function of Context and Experience
Factors. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1975, 60(5), 376-380.
Cahill, M.C. (1976)
Design Features of Graphic Symbols Varying in Interpretability. Perceptual and Motor Skills (42)2:647-653.
Cairney, P.T. & Sless, D. (1982)
Evaluating the Understanding of Symbolic Roadside Information Signs. Australian Road Research, 1982, 12/2, 97-102.
Calori, C., & Vanden-Eynden, D. (2015)
Signage and wayfinding design: A complete guide to creating environmental graphic design systems. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Caron, J.P., Jamieson, D.G. & Dewar, R.E. (1980)
Evaluating Pictographs Using Semantic Differential and Classification Techniques. Ergonomics 23(2):137-146.
Choi, J. & Tay, R. (2008)
Development of pictograms for dynamic traffic control systems in South Korea. Journal of Advanced Transportation. 42. 23 - 43.
Christ, R.E. (1975)
Review and Analysis of Color Coding Research for Visual Displays. Human Factors (17)6:542-570.
Christian, A. (2017)
Piktogramme - Tendenzen in der Gestaltung und im Einsatz grafischer Symbole. Köln: Herbert von Halem Verlag.
Cohen, A.L., Schmitt, N. & Colligan, M.J. (1989)
Aspects of Health Risk Communication: Material Safety Data Sheets for Informing Workers of Chemical Hazards at Work. Paper presented at the National Safety Council Annual Congress, Chicago.
Collins, B.L. (1982)
The Development and Evaluation of Effective Symbol Signs. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBS BSS 141, May 1982.
Collins, B.L. (1983)
Use of Hazard Pictorials/Symbols in the Mineral Industry. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 83-2732, September 1983.
Collins, B.L. (1983)
Evaluation of Mine-Safety Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 27th Annual Meeting:947-949.
Collins, B.L., Dahir, M.S. & Madrzykowski, D. (1990)
Evaluation of exit signs in clear and smoke conditions. NISTIR 4399, Gaithersburg, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1980)
The Assessment of Safety Symbol Understandability by Different Testing Methods. Washington, D.C.: US National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 80-2088.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1982)
Assessment of Fire-Safety Symbols. Human Factors, 24(1), 75-84.
Collins, B.L., Lerner, N.D. & Pierman, B.C. (1982)
Symbols for Industrial Safety. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 82-2485, April 1982.
Collins, B.L. & Lerner, N.D. (1983)
An Evaluation of Exit Symbol Visibility. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 83-2675, April 1983.
Collins, B.L. & Pierman, B.C. (1979)
Establishing Ways to Decide Whether People Understand Symbols. Industrial Design, 1979, 26, 48-50.
Collins, B.L. & Pierman, B.C. (1979)
Evaluation of Safety Symbols. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 79-1760, June 1979.
Covello, V., Winterfeldt, D. & Slovic, P. (1986)
Risk Communication: A Review of the Literature. Risk Abstracts 3(4):171-182.
Davies, S., Haines, H., & Norris, B. (1997)
The role of pictograms in the conveying of consumer safety information. London: Department of Trade and Industry, Consumer Affairs and Competition Policy Directorate.
Davies, S., Haines, H., Norris, B. & Wilson, J. R. (1998)
Safety pictograms: are they getting the message across? Applied Ergonomics, 29 (1), 15-23.
De La Mare, G. & Walker, J. (1962)
The Visibility of Direction Indicators. Ergonomics, 5(4), 573-579.
Dejoy, D.M. (1989)
Consumer Product Warnings: Review and Analysis of Effectiveness Research. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings:936-940.
Deppa, S.W. & Martin, B.J. (1997)
Human Factors behind the Improved ANSI Z535.3 Label Standard for Safety Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 41(2), 816–820. https://doi.org/10.1177/107118139704100219
Desaulniers, D.R. (1991)
An examination of consequence probability as a determinant of precautionary intent. Ph.D. diss., Rice University, Houston.
Desaulniers, D.R. (1993)
Layout, Organization, and the Effectiveness of Consumer Product Warnings. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society.
Dewar, R.E. (1976)
The Slash Obscures the Symbol on Prohibitive Traffic
Signs. Human Factors, 18, 253-258.
Dewar, R. (1999)
Design and evaluation of public information symbols. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Dewar, R. & Arthur, P. (1999)
Warning of water safety hazards with sequential pictographs. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday
use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Dewar, R.E. & Berger, W. (1972)
Methodology in Traffic Sign Evaluation. Paper presented at the International Conference on Highway Sign Symbology, Washington, D.C., June 1972.
Dewar, R.E. & Ells, J.G. (1974)
Comparison of Three Methods for Evaluating Traffic Signs. Transportation Research Records, 503, 38-47.
Dewar, R.E. & Ells, J.G. (1977)
The Semantic Differential as an Index of Traffic Sign Perception and Comprehension. Human Factors, 19(2), 183-189.
Dewar, R. & Ells, J. (1984)
Methods of Evaluation of Traffic
Signs. In: Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.): Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Dewar, R.E., Ells, J.G. & Mundy, G. (1976)
Reaction Time as an Index of Traffic Sign Perception. Human Factors, 1976, 18, 381-392.
Dewar, R.E., Ells, J.G., & Cooper, P.J. (1977)
Evaluation of Roadway Guide Signs at a Large Airport. Transportation Engineering, 1977, 47(6), 19-23.
Dewar, R.E., Kline, D.W. & Swanson, H.A. (1994)
Age differences in comprehension of traffic sign symbols. Transportation Research Record 1456, 1-10.
Dewar, R.E. & Swanson, H.A. (1972)
Recognition of Traffic Control Signs. Highway Research Board. 1972, 414, 16-23.
Dingus, R.A., Wreggit, S.S. & Hathaway, J.A. (1993)
Warning Variables Affecting Personal Protective Equipment Use. Safety Science (16) 5/6:655-673.
Dionne, E.D. (1979)
Effective Safety Signs and Posters. National Safety News (120)4, 48-52.
Dixon, P. (1982)
Plans and Written Directions for Complex Tasks. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 21, 70-84.
Donner, K.A. & Brelsford, J.W. (1988)
Cueing hazard information for consumer products. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting, Human Factors Society, 532-535.
Dorris, A.L. (1991)
Product warnings in theory and practice. Some questions answered and some answers questioned. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 2, 1073-1077.
Dorris, A.L. & Purswell, J.L. (1977)
Warnings and Human Behavior: Implications for the Design of Product Warnings. Journal of Product Liability, no. 1, 255-264.
Dowse, R. & Ehlers, M.S. (2001)
The evaluation of pharmaceutical pictograms in a low-literate South African population, Patient Education and Counseling, 45(2), 87-99.
Dreyfuss, H.
Symbol Sourcebook: An Authoritative Guide to International Graphic Symbols. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Duarte, E. & Rebelo, F. (2006)
Safety Signs Comprehension and the Context Effect. IEA 2006 – The 16th World Congress on Ergonomics, Meeting Diversity in Ergonomics. Maastricht, The Netherlands: Elsevier Ltd.
Duarte, M. E. C., Rebelo, F., & Wogalter, M. S. (2010)
Virtual reality and its potential for evaluating warning compliance. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, 20(6), 526-537.
Duffy, T.M. (1985)
Chapter 6: Readability formulas: What's the use? In Designing Usable Texts, T.M. Duff, and R. Wailer (Eds.) Orlando: Academic Press, Inc., 113-140.
Dunlap, G.L., Granda, R.E. & Kustas, M.S. (1986)
Observer perceptions of implied hazard: safety signal word and color words. IBM Technical Report (T 00.3428)
Easterby, R.S. & Graydon, I.R. (1981)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols: ISO 1979/80 Test Series. Part II: Comprehension/Recognition Tests. AP Report 100, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham, January 1981.
Easterby, R.S. & Graydon, I.R. (1981)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols: ISO Test: 1979/80 Series. Part I: Appropriateness Ranking Tests. AP Report 99, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham, January 1981.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1976)
The Perception of Relative Hazard Levels of Cosumer Products: An Empirical Field Study. AP Report 62, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling and Consumer Products: Field Studies of Sign Recognition. AP Report 76, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, December 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling of Consumer Products: Shapes and Colour Code Stereotypes in the Design of Signs. AP Report 75, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, December 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1977)
Safety Labelling of Consumer Products - Interim Report on Shape and Colour Coding of Signs. AP Report 56, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston, Birmingham, March 1977.
Easterby, R.S. & Hakiel, S.R. (1981)
Field Testing of Consumer Safety Signs: The Comprehension of Pictorially Presented Messages. Applied Ergonomics, 1981, 12, 143-152.
Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (1976)
Evaluation of Public Information Symbols, ISO Tests: 1975 Series. AP Report 60, Department of Applied Psychology, University of Aston, Birmingham, March 1976.
Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.) (1984)
Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Easterby, R.S., Hakiel, S.R., & Graydon, I.R. (1980)
Safety Sign Conspicuity. The Effect of Sign Size and Position on Detection. AP Report 89, Applied Psychology Department, University of Aston in Birmingham.
ETSI ETR 113 (1993)
Human Factors (HF); Results of an Evaluation Study of Pictograms for Point-to-point Video-telephony. Sophia Antipolis: European Telecommunications Standards Institute.
Evans, D. W., & Ginsburg, A. P. (1985)
Contrast sensitivity predicts age-related differences in highway-sign discriminability. Human factors, 27(6), 637–642.
Familant, M.E. & Detweiler, M.C. (1993)
Iconic Reference: Evolving Perspectives and an Organizing Framework.
Int.J.Man-Machine Studies, 39, 705-728.
Fiori, S. (2017)
Public Information Symbols in Tourism: importance, challenges, dimensions and empirical research about pictograms. Revista Brasileira de Cartografia. 66.
FMC Corporation (1985)
FMC, Product Safety Sign and Label System, 3rd ed., Santa Clara, California.
FMC Corporation (1985)
Product Safety Signs and Label System (national and international use of pictorials and symbols).
Fonseca, L. & Bryant, K. (1960)
Comprehension of Pictorial Symbols: An Experiment in Rural Brazil. Department of Agricultural Journalism, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Bulletin 30, April 1960.
Forbes, T.W. (1964)
Predicting Attention-Gaining Characteristics of Highway Traffic Signs: Measurement Technique. Human Factors, 6, 1964, 371-374.
Foster, J.J. (1994)
Evaluating the effectiveness of public information symbols. Information Design Journal, 7, 1994, 183-202.
Foster, J.J., Adams, A.S. & Koyama, K. (2013)
A modern approach to the testing of graphical symbols. Signs and Symbols for Workplace and Public Use. 135-146.
Foster, J.J. & Afzalnia, M.R. (2005)
International assessment of judged symbol comprehensibility. International Journal of Psychology, 40(3), 169–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590444000258
Foster, J., Koyama, K. & Adams, A. (2010)
Paper and on-line testing of graphical access symbols in three countries using the ISO 9186 comprehension test. Information Design Journal. 18. 107-117.
Franklin Research Center (1978)
Symbol Signs: The Testing of Passenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation-related Facilities. Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, DOT-OS-60071.
Frantz, J.P. (1992)
Effect of Location, Procedural Explicitness, and Presentation Format on User Processing of and Compliance With Product Warnings and Instructions.
Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.
Frantz, J.P. (1993)
Effect of Location and Presentation Format on Attention to and Compliance with Product Warnings and Instructions.
Journal of Safety Research 24, 131-154.
Frantz, J.P., Miller, J.M. & Lehto, M.R. (1994)
Must the Context be Considered When Applying Generic Safety Symbols:
A Case Study in Flammable Contact Adhesives.
Frascara, J. (1982)
Recognition Test for Public Information Symbols. Report Submitted to Humanities and Social Science Research Grants Committee of the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
Frascara, J. & Yau (1986)
Evaluation and Development of Safety Symbols - Part II Evaluation of Safety Symbols, Appropriateness Ranking Tests and Comprehension Recognition Tests. Edmonton, Canada: University of Alberta, Department of Art and Design.
Freedman, M. (1978)
Symbol Signs - The Testing of Passenger/Pedestrian Oriented Symbols for Use in Transportation Related Facilities. Washington, D.C.: Department of Transportation, DOT-OS-60071, December 1978.
Friedman, K. (1988)
The Effect of Adding Symbols to Written Warning Labels on User Behavior and Recall. Human Factors (30)4, 507-515.
Galer, M. (1980)
An Ergonomics Approach to the Problem of High Vehicles Striking Low Bridges. Applied Ergonomics 11(1), 43-46.
Garbo, M.J., Comeau, N.A. & Swanson, K.A. (1988)
OSHA Hazard Communication Standard. Helping Prevent Chemical Hazards. AAOHN Journal. 36(9), 366-371.
Gebhardt, E. (1972)
Überprüfung eines visuellen Zeichensystems. Experimentelle Diplomarbeit, Technische Universität Braunschweig.
Gehringer, J. (1979)
Untersuchung über die zeichnerische Gestaltung von Pictogrammen in Abhängigkeit von einigen Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen, sowie Überprüfung einiger Bildzeichen auf ihre Erkennbarkeit. Dissertation, Psychology Department, University of Vienna.
Gill, R.T., Barbera, C. & Precht, T. (1993)
A Comparative Evaluation of Warning Label Design. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 50-52.
Gittins, D. (1986)
Icon-based human-computer interaction. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 24, 519-543.
Glover, B.L., Magurno, A.B., Murray, L.A. & Wogalter, M.S. (1996)
Pictorial negations: Preferences for different circle-slash variations. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 40, 1155-1159.
Godfrey, S.D., Rothstein, P.R. & Laughery, K.R. (1993)
Warnings: Do They Make a Difference?. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California. The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 67-71.
Godfrey, S.S. & Laughery, K. R. (1993)
The Biasing Effects of Product Familiarity on Consumers Awareness of Hazard. Human Factors Perspective on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 58-61.
Godfrey, S.S., Laughery, K.R., Young, S.L., Vaubel, K.P., Brelsford, J.W., Laughery, K.E. & Horn, E. (1993)
The New Alcohol Warning Labels: How Noticeable Are They? Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 62-66.
Godfrey, S.S., Allender, L., Laughery, K.R. & Smith, V.L. 1983.
Warning Messages: Will the Consumer Bother to Look? Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 27th Annual Meeting, Human Factors Society, 950-954.
Goldsworthy, R. C., & Mayhorn, C. B. (2009)
On Warning Symbols, Text, and ‘getting it right’: The Iterative Refinement of a Teratogenic Pharmaceutical Label. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 53(20), 1603–1607.
Gordon, D.A. & Boyle, J.A. (1977)
The Legibility of Symbolic Parking Signs. Public Roads, 1977, 41/2, 68-73.
Green, P. (1979)
Rational Ways to Increase Pictographic Symbols Discriminability. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan.
Green, P. (1981)
Displays for Automotive Instrument Panels: Production and Rating of Symbols. The HSRI Research Review, 1981, Vol.12/1.
Green, P. & Davis, G. (1976)
The Recognition Time of Rotated Pictographic Symbols for Automobile Controls. Journal of Safety Research, 1976, 8, 179-183.
Green, P. & Pew, R.W. (1978)
Evaluating Pictographic Symbols: An Automotive Application. Human Factors, 1978, 20, 103-114.
Hadden, S.G. (1989)
Providing Citizens with Information about Health Effects of Hazardous Chemicals.
Journal of Occupational Medicine 31(6), 528-534.
Hadden, S. (1986)
Read the Label: Reducing Risk by Providing Information.
Westview/AAAS: Boulder, CO.
Hale, W. (1991)
Does it Look O.K.?. ASTM Standardization News. (March), 50-53.
Hartley, J. (1978)
Designing Instructional Text.
Nichols Publishing Company, New York, 1-125.
Hartley, J. (1981)
Eighty Ways of Improving Instructional Text.
IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 24(1), 17-27.
Heard, E.A. (1974)
Symbol Study - 1972. Detroit, Mi.: Society of Automotive
Engineers, Automotive Engineers Congress.
Helander, M. (Ed.) (1988)
Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Hemenway, K. (1982)
Psychological issues in the use of icons in command menus. ACM/NBS Conference: Human Factors in Computer Systems. pp. 20-23. Caithersburg, MD.
Hora, M. (2017)
Official Signs & Icons 3. Stony Point, New York: Ultimate Symbol.
Horst, D.P., McCarthy, G.E., Robinson, J.N., McCarthy, R.L. & Krumm-Scott, S. (1993)
Safety Information Presentation: Factors Influencing the Potential for Behavior.
Human Factors Perspective on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 86-90.
Horton, W.K. (1994)
The Icon Book: Visual Symbols for Computer Systems and Documentation.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Howett, G.L. (1983)
Size of Letters Required for Visibility as a Function of Viewing Distance and Observer Visual Acuity.
Building Physics Division, Center for Building Technology, National Engineering Laboratory,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C., July.
Hurst, R. (1986)
Using Federal Standards to Determine Adequacy of Consumer Products's Precautionay Labeling.
Veterinary and Human Toxicology 28, 557-562.
International Chamber of Commerce (1991)
Environmental Labelling Schemes (ELS), ICC position paper, Paris, June.
International Organization for Standardization (1989)
Procedures for the Development and Testing of Public Information Symbols.
Geneva, Switzerland: ISO/TC 145, No. 9186.
Jacobs, R.J., Johnston, A.W. & Cole, B.L. (1975)
The visibility of alphabetic and symbolic traffic signs. Australian Road Research 5, 68-86.
Janda, H.F. & Volk, W.N. (1934)
Effectiveness of Various Highway
Signs. Highway Research Board Proceedings, 1934, 14, 442-47.
Jaynes, L.S. & Boles, D.B. (1990)
The Effect of Symbols on Warning Compliance.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting (2), 984-987.
Jin, T. (1976)
Visibility through fire smoke (Part 5. Allowable smoke density for escape from fire). Report of Fire Research Institute of Japan, Serial No. 42, 1976, pp12-18.
Jin, T., Yamada, T., Kawai, S. & Takahashi, S. (1991)
Evaluation of the conspicuousness of emergency exit signs. Proc. 3rd International Association of Fire Safety Science, Elsevier, 1991, pp.835-841.
Johnson, D. (1993)
A Warning Label for Scaffold Users. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 95-99.
Kalsher, M.J., Brantley, K.A., Wogalter, M.S. & Snow-Wolff, J. (2000)
Evaluating Choking Child Pictorial Symbols. In: Proceedings of the IEA 2000/HFES 2000 Congress. Santa Monica, CA: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, pp. 4-790-4-793.
Kammann, R. (1975)
The Comprehensibility of Printed Instructions and the Flowchart Alternative. Human Factors 17(2), 183-191.
Kanouse, D.E. & Hayes-Roth, B. (1980)
Cognitive Considerations in the Design of Product Warnings in Product Labeling and Health Risks. Morris, L.A. Mazis, M.B. and Barofsky, I. (Eds.), 1980, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Banbury Report 6. 147-163.
Kemnitz, C. (1991)
How to Write Effective Hazard Alert Messages. Technical Communications, First Quarter, 68-73.
Kieras, D. (1989)
A Methodology for Computer Interface Design in the Handbook of Human-Computer Interaction.
Kieras, D. & Bovair, S. (1986)
The Acquisition of Procedures from Text: A Production-System Analysis of Transfer of Training.
Journal of Memory and Language 25, 507-524.
Kieras, D.E. & Deckert, C. (1985)
Rules for Comprehensible Technical Prose: A Survey of Psycholinguistic Literature. Technical Report No. 21 (TR-85/ONR-21). (June), 1-21.
Kinateder, M., Warren, W.H., & Schloss, K.B. (2018)
What color are emergency exit signs? Egress behavior differs from verbal report. Applied Ergonomics, Volume 75, 155-160.
King, L.E. & Tierney, W.J. (1970)
Glance Legibility, Symbol Versus Word Highway Signs. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Human Factors Society, San Francisco.
Klare, G.R. (1974)
Assessing Readability. Reading Research Quarterly 10(1), 62-102.
Kline, P.B., Braun, C.C., Peterson & N. Silver, N.C. (1993)
The Impact of Color Warnings Research. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 37th Annual Meeting, 940-943.
Kline, T.J., Ghali, L.M., Kline, D.W., & Brown, S. (1990)
Visibility distance of highway signs among young, middle-aged, and older observers: Icons are better than text. Human Factors, 32, 609-619.
Kolp, P., Sattler, B., Blayney, M. & Sherwood, T. (1993)
Comprehensibility of Material Safety Data Sheets.
American Journal of Industrial Medicine (23)1, 135-141.
Kolp, P.W., Williams, P.L. & Burtan, R.C. (1995)
Assessment of the Accuracy of Material Safety Data Sheets.
Journal of the American Industrial Hygiene Association 56, 178-183.
Kotwal, B. & Lerner, N. (1995)
Product Labeling Guide Literature Review. Comsis Corporation. Report generated for the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Contract CPSC-C-93-1132.
Krampen, M. (1969)
The Production Method in Sign Design Research. Print, 1969, 23/6, 59-63.
Krampen, M. (1974)
Report on Research Carried Out on Symbols for Public Information. Berlin: ISO/TC 145/WG 3 N66, October 1974.
Kreindler, R.J., Luchsinger, V.P. (1978)
How Readable are Your Safety Publications. Professional Safety (23)9, 40-42.
Kurtz, Sr. P.M. (1994)
Analysis of Reproductive Health Hazard Information on Material Safety Data Sheets for Lead and the ethylene glycol ethers. American Journal of Industrial Medicine 25(3):403-405.
LaRue, C. & Cohen, H. (1987)
Factors influencing consumers' perceptions of warning: an examination of the differences between male and female consumers.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 31st Annual Meeting, 610-614.
Laughery, K.R. & Young, S.L. (1991)
Eye scan analysis of accessing product warning information.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1, 585-589.
Laughery, K.R. & Brelsford, J.W. (1993)
Receiver Characteristics in Safety Communications.
Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings.
California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 120-124.
Laughery, K.R., Rowe-Hallbert, A. L., Young, S.L., Vaubel, K.P. & Laux, L.F.. (1991)
Effects of explicitness in conveying severity information in product warnings.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1, 481-485.
Laux, L., Mayer, D.L. & Thompson, N.B. (1989)
Usefulness of Symbols and Pictorials to Communicate Hazard Information.
Proceedings of INTERFACE 89, 79-83.
Lehto, M.R. (1992)
Designing Warning Signs and Warning Labels: Part I Guidelines for the Practitioner.
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics (10)1-2, 105-113.
Lehto, M.R. & Miller, J.M. (1986)
Warnings: Fundamentals, Design, and Evaluation Methodologies.
Fuller Technical Publications, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Lehto, M.R. (1992)
Designing Warning Signs and Labels: Part I - Guidelines for the Practitioner.
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics.
Lehto, M.R. (1992)
Designing Warning Signs and Warning Labels: Part II Scientific Basis for Initial Guidelines.
International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics (10)1-2, 115-138.
Lehto, M.R. & DeSalvo, T.E. (1992)
Evaluation of the Comprehension of Hazard Communication Phrases by Chemical Workers.
A technical report prepared for the Chemical Manufacturers Association by Consumer Research, Inc., West Lafayette, IN, (April 6).
Lehto, M.R. & DeSalvo, T.E. (1993)
Evaluation of Proposed Labeling Phrases.
A report prepared for the Chemical Manufacturers Association by Consumer Research, Inc., West Lafayette, IN, (July 20).
Lehto, M.R. & Miller, J.M. (1986)
Warnings Volume I: Fundamentals, Design, and Evaluation Methodologies.
Ann Arbor, MI, Fuller Technical Publications.
Lehto, M.R. & Papastravrou, J.D. (1993)
Models of the Warning Process: Important Implications Towards Effectiveness.
Safety Science 16.
Lehto, M.R. & Miller, J.M. (1986)
Warnings Volume I: Fundamentals, Design, and Evaluation Methodologies.
Fuller Technical Publications, Ann Arbor.
Leonard, S.D., Karnes, E.W., Otani, H. & Hastins, D.L. (1987)
Effects of Information Content on Warning Signals. Trends in Ergonomic/Human Factors IV,
Proceedings of the Annual International Industrial Ergonomics and Safety Conference, Miami, Florida,
June 9-12, Asfour, S.S., Editor, Amsterdam, Netherlands, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Part A, 493-490.
Leonard, S.D., Hill, G. & Karnes, E.W. (1989)
Risk Perception and Use of Warnings.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting, 550-554.
Leonard, S.D., Matthews, D. & Karnes, E.W. (1993)
How Does the Population Interpret Warning Signals?.
Human Factors Perspective on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 140-144.
Leonard, S.D., Creel, E. & Karnes, E.W. (1991)
Adequacy of responses to warning terms.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting (2),1024-1028.
Lerman, S.E. & Kipen, H.M. (1990)
Material Safety Data Sheet. Caveat Emptor. Archives of Internal Medicine 150(5), 981-984.
Lerner, N.D. (1981)
Evaluation of Exit Directional Symbols. Washington: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 81-2268, 1981.
Lerner, N.D. & Collins, B.L. (1980)
Workplace Safety Symbols. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR
80-2003, 1980.
Lerner, N.D. & Collins, B.L. (1980)
The Assessment of Safety Symbol Understandability By Different Testing Methods. Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, NBSIR 80-2088, August 1980.
Lin, T. S. & Lai, C. (2013)
The recognition and comprehension on application icons on mobile devices. 5th IASDR 2013 Tokyo (5th International Congress of International Association of Society of Design Research): Consilience and Innovation in Design.
Lindgaard, G., Chessari & J. Ihsen, E. (1987)
Icons in telecommunications: What makes pictorial information comprehensible to the user? A.T.R., 21, 2, pp. 17-29.
Lirtzman (1987)
Validation of Proposed Symbols for Precautionary Labeling of Hazardous Industrial Chemicals. Washington, DC: Chemical Manufacturers Association, Inc.
Lodding, K. N. (1982)
Iconic interfacing. IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, 3, 11-20.
Lork, Ch. (1995)
Zur semiotischen Systematik von Orientierungszeichen und Orientierungssystemen - dargestellt am Beispiel des Flughafens Köln/Bonn. Aachen: Verlag Mainz.
Luoma, J. & Rämä, P. (2001)
Comprehension of pictograms for variable message signs. Traffic Engineering and Control. 42. 53-58.
Mackett-Stout, J. & Dewar, R.L. (1981)
Evaluation of Public Information Signs. Human Factors, 1981, 23, 139-151.
Maguire, M. C. (1985)
A review of human factors guidelines and techniques for the design of graphical human-computer interfaces. Comput. & Graphics, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 221-235.
Magurno, A.B., Kohake, J.R., Wogalter, M.S. & Wolff, J.S. (1994)
Iterative Test and Development of Pharmaceutical
Pictorials. Ergonomics and Design, Vol. 4, International Ergonomics Association,
pp. 360-362.
Magurno, A.B. & Wogalter, M.S. (1994)
Behavioral Compliance With Warnings: Effects of Stress and Placement.
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting, 826-830.
Magyar, S. (1991)
Piktogramok kézikönyve. Budapest, Hungary: Entermen Kiadó.
Main, B., Rhodes, P.R. & Frantz, P. (1994)
Are Current Product Labeling Systems Effective?. NFPA Journal (88)1, 71-76.
Maines, John, (1992)
Who Reads the Warning Label? American Demographics September, 13-14.
Martinez, G.V. (1970)
Comprehension of Pictorial Messages in Corn Production by
Literate, Semi-literate, and Illiterate Farmers in Central Vera Cruz, Mexico. Unpublished
Ph.D. thesis, Mass Communications, University of Wisconsin.
McCarthy, R.L., Ayres, T. J., Wood, C.T. & Robinson J.N. (1995)
Risk and effectiveness criteria for using on-product warnings. Ergonomics Vol. 38(11):2164-2175.
McCarthy, R., Finnegan, J., Krumm-Scott, S. & McCarthy, G. Failure Analysis Associates (1984)
Product Information Presentation, Use Behavior and Safety.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, 28th Annual Meeting.
McCormick, E.J. & Sanders, M.S. (1982)
Human Factors Engineering and Design. McGraw-Hill, New York.
McDougall, S., Tyrer, V., & Folkard, S. (2006)
Searching for signs, symbols, and icons: Effects of time of day, visual complexity, and grouping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12(2), 118–128.
McNeely, E. (1990)
An Organizational Study of Hazard Communication. The Health Provider Perspective. AAOHN Journal 38(4):165-173.
McQuiston, T.H. (1996)
Multi-program Evaluation: A Descriptive Review.
Mendoza, A.R. (1974)
The Effectiveness of Four Poison Symbols. M.S.Thesis, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Mergler, N.L., & Zandi, T. (1983)
Adult age differences in speed and accuracy of matching verbal and pictorial signs. Educational Gerontology, 9, 73-85.
Mikhail, F.R. (1957)
Comprehension of Selected Pictorial Symbols by Egyptian Farmers. Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Agricultural Journalism, University of Wisconsin.
Miller, J.M., Lehto, M.R. & Frantz, P. (1990)
Instructions and Warnings: The Annotated Bibliography, Ann Arbor, MI, Fuller Technical Publications.
Miller, H.G. (1986)
Consistent, Accurate Data Needed for Preparing the MSDS. Occupational Health and Safety 55(4), 31-34.
Modley, R. & Myers, W.R. (1976)
Handbook of Pictorial Symbols. New York : Dover Publications.
Mollerup, P. (2005)
Wayshowing: A Guide to Environmental Signage Principles & Practices. Baden, Switzerland: Lars Müller Publications.
Moore, M.G. (1991)
Product Warning Effectiveness: Perception Versus Reality. Professional Safety. American Society of Safety Engineers. (April), 21-24 .
Mueller, W. (1991)
Who Reads the Label?. American Demographics (January), 37-40.
Murray, L., Magurno, A.B., Glover, B., & Wogalter, M. (1998)
Prohibitive pictorials: Evaluations of different circle-slash negation symbols. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 22, 473-482.
Nijhuis, W. & Boersema, T. (1999)
Cooperation between graphic designers and applied behavioural researchers. In H. J. G. Zwaga, T. Boersema, & H. C. M. Hoonhout. (Eds.).
Visual information for everyday use. Design and research perspectives. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis Inc.
Nilsson, D. (2009)
Exit choice in fire emergencies - Influencing choice of exit with flashing lights. Brandteknikoch riskhantering, LTH, Lunds Universiet, Box 118, 22100 Lund.
Nixon, J., Bryce, M. & Pearn, J. (1980)
Do Children Understand Warning Symbols? Ergonomics Soc.of Australia and New Zealand, Proc.of the 17th Ann.Conf."Ergonomics in Practice, Sidney, 1980, 43-50.
Nygårdhs, S. (2011)
Literature review on variable message signs (VMS) 2006–2009. VTI notat 15A-2011, Linköping Sweden: VTI (Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute).
Olander, J., Ronchi, E., Lovreglio, R. & Nilsson, D. (2017)
Dissuasive exit signage for building fire evacuation. Appl. Ergon. 59, 84–93.
Olgyay, N. (1996)
Safety Symbols Art: The Testing
Protocol, Materials & Results. Washington, DC: Foci Studio.
Olgyay, N. (2000/2001)
Development & Testing of the IIID Safety Symbols System.
Information Design Journal, 10(2), pp. 107-114.
Olmstead, W.T. (1999)
The usability of symbols for health care
facilities: the effect of culture, gender and age. In: Zwaga, H., Boersema, T. &
Hoonhout, H. (Eds.): Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Ota, Y. (1987)
Pictogram Design. Tokyo: Kashiwa Shobo Publishers, Ltd.
Otsubo, S.M. (1988)
A Behavioral Study of Warning Labels for Consumer Products: Perceived Danger and Use of Pictographs.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 32nd Annual Meeting, 536-540.
Patterson, M.R. (1987)
The Hazards of Illiteracy in the Workplace. Professional Safety 32(11), 41-45.
Phillips, C.C. (1997)
The Efficacy of Material Safety Data Sheets and Worker Acceptability.
Dissertation presented for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, (May).
Podany, K., Wogalter, M.S. & Mayhorn, C.B. (2004)
Perceived Effectiveness of ‘No Turn on Red’ Traffic Signs. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting.
Pollack-Nelson, C. (1991)
Estimated Effectiveness of Warning Labels. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Division of Human Factors, (March).
Polzella, D.J., Gravelle, M.D. & Klauer, K.M. (1992)
Perceived Effectiveness of Danger Signs: A Multivariate Analysis. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 36th Annual Meeting:931-934.
Powers, M., Ruttenberg, R. & Weinstock, D.
The Railway Workers' Hazardous Materials Training Programs, 1991 - 1995, A Review of Evaluation Results.
Purswell, J.L., Krenek, R.F. & Dorris, A. (1993)
Warning Effectiveness: What Do We Need to Know. Human Perspectives on Warnings.
California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 174-178.
Purswell, J.L., Schlegel, R.E. & Kejriwal, S. (1993)
A Prediction Model for Consumer Behavior Regarding Product Safety.
Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings, 179-182
Pyrczak, F. & Roth, D.H. (1976)
The Readability of Directions on Non-Description Drugs.
Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association NS 16(5), 242-243, 267.
Rammerstorfer, U. (2005)
Piktogramme als internationaler Beitrag zur interkulturellen Kommunikation. Dipl.Arb., University of Vienna.
Reale, M.J. (1996)
Making HazCom Labels Effective. Occupational Health & Safety (65)6, 39-40.
Ribar, N., Wogalter, M. S. & Mayhorn, C. B. (2007)
Perceived Hazard for Images Depicting before and during Consequences with Two Kinds of Prohibition Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting.
Riley, M.W., Cochran, D. J. & Ballard, J.L. (1982)
An Investigation of Preferred Shapes for Warning Labels.
Human Factors (24), 737-742.
Riley, M.; Cochran, D. & Ballard, J. (1982)
Designing and Evaluating Warning Labels.
IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication (PC-25)3, 127-130.
Robins, T.G. & Klitzman, S. (1988)
Hazard Communication in a Large U.S. Manufacturing Firm: the Ecology of Health Education in the Workplace.
Health Education Quarterly 15(4), 451-472.
Robins, T.G., Hugentobler, M.K., Kaminski, M. & Klitzman, S. (1994)
A Joint Labor Management Hazard Communication Training Program: A Case Study in Worker Health and Safety Training.
Occupational Medicine 9(2), 135-145.
Robins, T.G., Hugentobler, M.K., Kaminski, M. & Klitzman, S. (1990)
Implementation of the Federal Hazard Communication Standard: Does Training Work?
Journal of Occupational Medicine 32(11), 1133-1140.
Rodak, A., Kruszewski, M., & Sztandera, B. (2022)
Does the Driver Understand the Warning? Comprehension of the Request to Intervene. Applied Sciences 12(19), 9451. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199451
Rodriquez, M.A. (1991)
What makes a warning label salient?
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting (2), 1029-1033.
Rohr, G. & Keppel, E. (1984)
Iconic interfaces: Where to use and how to construct? In H.W. Hendryck & O. Brown (eds.) Human Factors in organisational design and management, 269-275. North-Holland: Elsevier Science Publishers.
Ruttenberg, R. & Weinstock, D. (1995)
Evaluation HAZMAT Transportation Awareness Training Program, September 1993 - August 1994.
Saari, J., Bedard, S., Dufort, V., Hryniewiecki, J. & Theriault, G. (1994)
Successful Training Strategies to Implement a Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System.
An Evaluation Study at 80 Plants. Journal of Occupational Medicine 36(5), 569-574.
Samways, M. January (1988)
Functionally Illiterate Worker Also Has the 'Right to Understand.
Occupational Health and Safety.
Sattler, B. (1990)
Implementation of the Worker Right to Know Law in Maryland: An Analysis of Contemporary Occupational Health Policies.
Ph.D. diss., Johns Hopkins University.
Schlaich, S. & Meier-Walter, A. (2019)
The evolution of the elevator pictogram. Information Design Journal 25(1), 87–100.
Sell, R.G. (1977)
What Does Safety Propaganda Do for Safety? A Review.
Applied Ergonomics December, 203-214.
Sherer, M. & Rogers, R.W. (1984)
The role of vivid information in fear appeals and attitude change.
Journal of Research in Personality. 18, 321-334.
Shinar, D., Dewar, R., Summala, H. & Zakowska, L. (2003)
Traffic sign symbol comprehension: A cross-cultural study.Ergonomics, 46, 1549-1565.
Shoptaugh, C.F., & Whitaker, L.A. (1984)
Verbal response times to directional traffic signs embedded in photographic street scenes. Human Factors, 26, 235-244.
Siebenhandl, K., Risku, H., Brugger, Ch., Simlinger, P. & Egger, S. (2007)
Evaluating the Comprehensibility of Visualized Information for the Trans-European Road Network (Tern).
Silver, N.C., Kline, P.B. & Braun, C.C. (1994)
Type Form Variables: Differences in Perceived Readability and Perceived Hazardousness".
Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38th Annual Meeting, 821-825.
Silver, N.C., Leonard, D., Ponsi, K. & Wogalter, M.S. (1991)
Warnings and Purchase Intentions for Pest-Control Products.
Forensic Reports (4), 17-33.
Silver, N.C. & Wogalter, M.S. (1991)
Pest-control Products: Hazard Perception, Product Type and Label Characteristics.
Interface 1991, Human Factors Society, Santa Monica, CA, 106-110.
Silver, N.C. & Wogalter, M.S. (1993)
Broadening the Range of Signal Words. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings.
California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 186-190.
Silver, N. C., Wogalter, M. S., Brewster, B. M., Glover, B. L., Murray, L. T. A., Tillotson, C. A., & Temple, T. L. (1995)
Comprehension and Perceived Quality of Warning Pictorials. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 39(15), 1057–1061. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193129503901520
Simlinger, P. (1979)
Designing Public Information Symbols. Information Design Journal. 1. 182-189.
Simlinger, P., Egger, S., & Galinski, C. (2008)
IN-SAFETY, Infrastructure and safety. Workpackage WP2: Implementation scenarios and concepts towards self explaining roads. Deliverable D 2.3: Proposal on unified pictograms, keywords, bilingual verbal
messages and typefaces for VMS in the TERN. Final report. Vienna: International Institute for Information Design/IIID.
Skone, K. (1977)
Erkennbarkeit von Symbolvarianten. Dissertation, Psychology Department,
University of Vienna.
Sloan, G. & Eshelman, P. (1981)
The Development and Evaluation of Pictographic Symbols. Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, 25th Annual Meeting, Rochester, New York, 1981, pp. 198-202.
Standards Association of Australia (1980)
The Design and Use of Graphic Symbols and Public Information Standards, Part 3.
Test Procedures for Evaluating Graphic Symbols and Symbol Signs. North Sidney:
Standards Association of Australia, AS 2342, Part 3.
Stiebner, E.D. & Urban, D. (1982)
Zeichen + Signets; Signs + Emblems. Munich: Bruckmann
Sulzmann, F. (2008)
IN-SAFETY, Infrastructure and safety. Workpackage WP5: Implementation priorities and policy recommendations. Deliverable D5.1: Best practice guide on road signing.
Final report. Stuttgart: University of Stuttgart, IAT.
Swezey, R. (1984)
Optimising Legibility for Recall and Retention. In:
Easterby, R.S. & Zwaga, H.J.G. (Eds.): Information Design. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons
Ltd.
Transportation Research Board (2015)
Emergency Exit Signs and Marking Systems for Highway Tunnels. National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Web-Only Document 216.
Troedsson, S. (1979)
Report on Test of symbols for signposting in health care
establishments. Stockholm: Spri.
Ullman, B.R., Trout, N.D. & Dudek, C.L. (2009)
Use of Graphics and Symbols on Dynamic Message Signs: Technical Report Vol. 2009/05. Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, TX.
Walker, R.E., Nicolay, R.C., & Stearns, C. R. (1965)
Comparative accuracy of recognizing American and international road signs. Journal of Applied Psychology, 49, 322-375.
Webb, J. M., Sorenson, P. F. & Lyons, N. (1989):
An empirical approach to the evaluation of icons - A report of selected pilot experiments results. SIGCHI Bulletin, 21/1.
Westinghouse Electric Corporation (1981)
Product Safety Label Handbook. Westinghouse Printing Division, Trafford, PA.
West, A.S. (1991)
Worker Hazard Communications, the Regulatory Framework. Plant/Operations Progress: 10(1), 13-16.
Whitaker, L. A., & Stacey, S. (1981)
Response times to left and right directional signs. Human Factors, 23, 447-452.
Wogalter, M.S., Allison, S.T., McKenna, N.A. (1989)
Effects of Cost and Social Influence on Warning Compliance.
Human Factors (31)2, 133-140.
Wogalter, M.S. & Barlow, T. (1990)
Injury severity and likelihood in warnings.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 34th Annual Meeting, 580-583.
Wogalter, M.S., Brelsford, J.W., Desaulniers, D.R. & Laughery, K.R. (1991)
Consumer Product Warnings: The Role of Hazard Perception.
Journal of Safety Research (22)2, 71-82.
Wogalter, M.S., Conzola, V.C., & Smith-Jackson, T.L. (2002)
Research-based guidelines for warning design and evaluation. Applied ergonomics, 33(3), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0003-6870(02)00009-1
Wogalter, M.S., Desaulniers, D.R. & Godfrey, S. S. (1993)
Perceived Effectiveness of Environmental Warnings. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings.
California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 215-219.
Wogalter, M. S., Fontenelle, G.A. & Laughery, K.R. (1993)
Behavioral Effectiveness of Warnings. Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings.
California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 220-224.
Wogalter, M.S., Godfrey, S.S., Fontenelle, G.A., Desaulniers, D.R., Rothstein, P.R. & Laughery, K.R. (1987)
Effectiveness of Warnings. Human Factors (29)5, 599-612.
Wogalter, M.S., Jarrad, S.W. & Simpson, S. N. (1992)
Effects of Warning Signal Words on Consumer-Product Hazard Perceptions.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, 36th annual Meeting, 935-939.
Wogalter, M.S., Jarrad S.W. & Simpson S.N. (1994)
Influence of Warning Labels Signal Words on Perceived Hazard Level.
Human Factors (36)3, 547-556.
Wogalter, M.S., Kalsher, M.J. & Racicot, B.M. (1992)
The Influence of Location and Pictorials on Behavioral Compliance to Warnings.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society, 1029-1033.
Wogalter, M.S. & Laughery, K.R. (1996)
WARNING: Sign and Label Effectiveness. Current Directions in Psychology, 5, 33-37.
Wogalter, M., Murray, T.A., Glover, B., & Shaver, E.F. (2002)
Comprehension of Different Types of Prohibitive Safety Symbols with Glance Exposure. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 46, 1753 - 1757.
Wogalter, M.S., Racicot, B.M., Kalsher, M.J. & Simpson, S.N. (1993)
Behavioral Compliance to Personalized Warning Signs and the Role of Perceived Relevance.
Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California:
The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 239-243.
Wogalter, M.S. & Silver, N.C. (1990)
Arousal Strength of Signal Words. Forensic Reports, 407-420.
Wogalter, M.S. & Silver, N.C. (1995)
Warning Signal Words: Connoted Strength and Understandability by Children, Elders, and Non-native English Speakers.
Ergonomics 38(11), 2188-2206.
Wogalter, M. S., Silver, N. C., Leonard, S. D., & Zaikina, H. (2006)
Warning Symbols. In M. S. Wogalter (Ed.), Human factors and ergonomics. Handbook of warnings (p. 159–176). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Wolf, J.S. & Wogalter, M.S. (1998)
Comprehension of Pictorial Symbols: Effects of Context and Test Method.
Human Factors (40), 173-186.
Wong, L. & Lo, K.C. (2007)
Experimental study on visibility of exit signs in buildings. Building and Environment 42(4), 1836-1842.
Work, D.R. (1990)
Improving Drug Labels with Pictograms. International Pharmacy Journal 4, 153-157.
Young, S.L. (1991)
Increasing the noticeability of warnings. Effects of pictorial, color, signal icon and border.
Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 35th Annual Meeting 1, 580-584.
Young, S.L. (1993)
Increasing the Noticeability of Warning Effects of Pictorial, Color, Signal Icon and Border.
Human Factors Perspectives on Warnings. California: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 249-253.
Young, S.L. & Wogalter, M.S. (1988)
Memory of instructional manual warnings: effects
of pictorial icons and conspicuous print. In: Proceedings of the 32nd Annual
Meeting of the Human Factors Society, pp. 905-909. Santa Monica, CA: Human
Factors Society.
Young, S.L. & Wogalter, M.S. (1990)
Comprehension and Memory of Instruction Manual Warnings:
Conspicuous Print and Pictorial Icons. Human Factors (32)6, 637-649.
Young, S.L. & Wogalter, M.S. (2000)
Predictors of Pictorial Symbol Comprehension. In: Proceedings of the
IEA 2000/HFES 2000 Congress. Santa Monica, CA: The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society,
pp. 4-294-4-297.
Young, S.L. & Wogalter, M.S. (2000/2001)
Predictors of Pictorial Symbol Comprehension.
Information Design Journal, 10(2), pp. 124-132.
Zwaga, H.J. (1989)
Comprehensibility estimates of public information symbols: their validity and use. In: Proceedings of the Human Factors Society 33rd Annual Meeting, pp. 979-983. Santa Monica, CA: Human Factors Society.
Zwaga, H.J. & Boersema, T. (1981)
Evaluation of a Set of Graphic Symbols. Report no.28, Psychological Laboratory, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands. July 1981.
Zwaga, H.J. & Boersema, T. (1983)
Evaluation of a set of graphic symbols. Applied Ergonomics, 14, 1, 43-54.
Zwaga, H.J.G., Boersema, T. & Hoonhout, H.C.M. (Eds.) (1999)
Visual information for everyday use. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Zwaga, H.J.G. & Poppinga, J.
Identification and Legibility of Graphic Symbols; Towards a standard for public information symbols. Internal Report, Psychological Laboratory, University of Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Zwaga, H. & Mijksenaar, P. (2000)
The Development and Standardization of Warning Symbols; the Role of Design and Human Factors. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 44. 782-785.